doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-14077-6, Torihara, K., and Kishimoto, N. (2015). 4, 16851690. 277, 3682536831. Microscopic image of paramylon granules (B). Alternatively, conventional mutagenesis could be used to generate 'natural' mutant strains with desired traits, a process which is generally not considered GM. Sci. Biol. (1995). Algae need their vitamins. Enzymes of the FA biosynthesis pathway in E. gracilis have been shown to be crucial for the quality of WE derived from E. gracilis. doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2009.11.014, Sugiyama, A., Hata, S., Suzuki, K., Yoshida, E., Nakano, R., Mitra, S., et al. DW titres per L of MT cultures have been shown to fall short of HT cultures in comparative experiments by around 30% (w/w), although it has been suggested that the PT and HT metabolisms could complement each other under MT conditions (Ogbonna et al., 2002; Hasan et al., 2017). Adv. J. Struct. Biophys. Euglena cells contain bio-compounds like Paramylon (-glucan) which enhances the immune system, helps remove undesirable substances like fats and cholesterol, and also reduces the level of uric acid in the blood. The methylerythritol phosphate pathway contributes to carotenoid but not phytol biosynthesis in Euglena gracilis. Influence of fatty acid composition of raw materials on biodiesel properties. To the best of our knowledge, there are currently no reports of a commercial -tocopherol production using E. gracilis. There are strong indications that this pretreatment of paramylon has the effect of an increase in stimulation of leucocytes and hepatoprotection, probably because the -1,3-glucan triple-helices of paramylon are disrupted in the process and the apparently more bioactive single helices are thereby exposed (Kataoka et al., 2002; Kusmic et al., 2018). Fatty acyl-CoA reductase and wax synthase from Euglena gracilis in the biosynthesis of medium-chain wax esters. doi: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.08.007, Traber, M.G. Bioeng. The nanofibres can be surface-modified with functional groups (e.g., carboxylic acid) and could serve as stimuli-responsive polymers or drug delivery systems (Shibakami et al., 2013b). doi: 10.1074/jbc.RA117.000936, Kusmic, C., Barsacchi, R., Barsanti, L., Gualtieri, P., and Passarelli, V. (1998). Another way to produce biogas consisting mostly of methane from microalgal biomass is through anaerobic digestion by a consortium of microorganisms. Carbohydrate Polymers 105, 9096. Euglena gracilis biosynthesis pathways of -carotene (A), ascorbate (B), -tocopherol (C), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (D) (Shigeoka et al., 1992; Kim et al., 2004; Ishikawa et al., 2006; Ishikawa and Shigeoka, 2008; Lohr et al., 2012; Pollak et al., 2012; O'Neill et al., 2015b; Kato et al., 2016; Hasan et al., 2017). Univ. Furthermore, substantial research has been performed to improve the WE yields specifically. doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.05.010, Takeyama, H., Kanamaru, A., Yoshino, Y., Kakuta, H., Kawamura, Y., and Matsunaga, T. (1997). Lipids 50, 483492. 304, 508514. Paramylon and other -1,3-glucans are of special interest because of their reported immunostimulatory and antimicrobial bioactivities (Kiss et al., 1986; Barsanti et al., 2001; Russo et al., 2017; Gissibl et al., 2018). Shigeoka, S., Onishi, T., Nakano, Y., and Kitaoka, S. (1986). 16, 3441. Appl. Water Environ. Carbohydrate Polymers 93, 499505. (2018a). doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)85672-1, Meyer, A., Cirpus, P., Ott, C., Schlecker, R., Zhringer, U., and Heinz, E. (2003). Commercially relevant bioproducts synthesised by E. gracilis feature protein containing essential amino acids, pro(vitamins), lipids, and the -1,3-glucan paramylon (Takeyama et al., 1997; Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010; Pollak et al., 2012). Occurrence of L-ascorbic acid in Euglena gracilis Z. Immunopathol. Sci. For example, mice fed with 2% (w/w) paramylon in their diet and challenged with the (human) influenza virus A/PR/8/34 (H1N1) showed higher survival rates and cytokine levels (IFN- IL-1, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-12) compared to the control group in concurrence with lower virus titres, suggesting that paramylon served as an effective regulator of the immune response providing protection against the virus (Nakashima et al., 2017). Euglena are also able to move by means of changing its . Improvement of the performance of E. gracilis has mainly relied on developing cultivation conditions to favour the synthesis of the compound of interest, followed by scale-up of the cultivation volume, because of a general lack of genetic information on the metabolic pathways leading to the various bioproducts (O'Neill et al., 2015a; Wang et al., 2018). Biochim. 77, 273279. Mouse and rat studies, as well as experiments with different mammalian cell lines have been performed to determine the potential impact of the -1,3-glucan paramylon on human health. doi: 10.1007/s11746-017-3050-7, Maurice, L.Q., Lander, H., Edwards, T., and Harrison, W.E. Biofuels 8, 8091. The promising future of microalgae: current status, challenges, and optimization of a sustainable and renewable industry for biofuels, feed, and other products. Curr. Future challenges include achieving the economy of large-scale cultivation. This enzyme converts -tocopherol to -tocopherol using S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) as the methyl group donor and also shows promiscuity towards - and -tocopherol (Shigeoka et al., 1992). Euglena gracilis has considerable biotechnological potential and great adaptability, but exploitation remains hampered by the absence of a comprehensive gene catalogue. Technol. The technical set-up of a cultivation also plays an important role in -tocopherol production, for example, hydrodynamic stress caused by fast stirring with baffled plates in a bioreactor cultivation has been shown to have a detrimental effect on the final yields of -tocopherol during HT cultivation (Ogbonna et al., 1998). Technol. By definition, paramylon and its related compounds can only be considered 'nutraceuticals' and not 'pharmaceuticals', which has restricted them to be used only as food supplements (Santini et al., 2018). Express 7, 27032708. Nevertheless, this study offered that lipid . Chem. (2017). doi: 10.1007/s12257-010-0145-5, Zhu, G., Ou, Q., Zhang, T., Jiang, X., Sun, G., Zhang, N., et al. Efficient use of strong light for high photosynthetic productivity: interrelationships between the optical path, the optimal population density and cell-growth inhibition. Microb. 146, 431442. Suzuki, K., Nakashima, A., Igarashi, M., Saito, K., Konno, M., Yamazaki, N., et al. doi: 10.1007/s00253-011-3311-6, Chae, S.R., Hwang, E.J., and Shin, H.S. and Crypthecodinium cohnii, have been shown to reach more than twice the DW of E. gracilis under HT cultivation (Table 1), the current E. gracilis HT cultivation process should be revised to improve its efficiency (Bumbak et al., 2011). Paramylon molecules are arranged as an intermolecular triple helix forming microfibrils, which in turn make up fibres. (2013). Food Sci. E. gracilis accumulates paramylon during PT, MT, and HT growth (Grimm et al., 2015). 15, 657662. Firstly, by optimizing the solid-liquid ratio, extraction time, extraction . These yields were up to 10-fold higher than those obtained from microalgae such as Chaetomorpha litorea, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Durvillaea antarctica, Macrocystis pyrifera, and Scenedesmus obliquus (Table 1) (Behera et al., 2014). Curr. J. Appl. 270, 8492. Nutr. (2004). Paramylon, which is exclusively found in euglenoids is already present in the market as a potent immunostimulatory agent. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.64.8, Nakazawa, M., Andoh, H., Koyama, K., Watanabe, Y., Nakai, T., Ueda, M., et al. -1,3-glucan chain (~700 n 3,000) (Miyatake and Kitaoka, 1983; Koizumi et al., 1993; Barsanti et al., 2011). 97, 322329. doi: 10.1002/1873-3468.12659, Tandon, P., Jin, Q., and Huang, L. (2017). (2017). PT cultivation induces the synthesis of ascorbate in E. gracilis as a mechanism to cope with reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during photosynthesis (ROS scavenging). Curr. Production of paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, by heterotrophic cultivation of Euglena gracilis on potato liquor. Chemical derivatives of paramylon (activated paramylon) have been shown to exhibit augmented or novel bioactivities. History of Euglena First evolved more than 500 million years ago, Euglena was then discovered in the 1660s by Dutchman Antoni van Leeuwenhoek. Recent insights into the complex metabolism of E. gracilis have highlighted unique metabolic pathways, which could provide new leads for product enhancement by genetic modification of the organism. Abstract Motile microorganisms such as the green Euglena gracilis use a number of external stimuli to orient in their environment. Algae acquire vitamin B12 through a symbiotic relationship with bacteria. Plant Physiol. doi: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2012.12.002. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02009, Rodrguez-Zavala, J.S., Ortiz-Cruz, M.A., Mendoza-Hernndez, G., and Moreno-Snchez, R. (2010). Implications for the recognition of fungi by innate immunity. However, carbohydrate and lipid yields in E. gracilis can be improved by new cultivation technologies and metabolic engineering approaches, possibly providing an affordable alternative to fossil fuels in the near future. Plant Cell Physiol. Commun. 58, 532538. 38, 12071213. 30, 367373. doi: 10.2174/0929867003374705, Papadaki, A., Mallouchos, A., Efthymiou, M.-N., Gardeli, C., Kopsahelis, N., Aguieiras, E.C.G., et al. (2003). Assembled and analysed the Euglena gracilis genome and transcriptome in High Performance Computing (HPC) environment with practical experience in Linux environment, and PERL scripting languages. doi: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2009.00452.x. Suppression of the phytoene synthase gene (EgcrtB) alters carotenoid content and intracellular structure of Euglena gracilis. It should be noted that ascorbate production by E. gracilis has not attracted much attention, probably because consumption of just 100 to 200 mL of juice from citrus fruits like oranges (Table 1) is enough to fulfil the daily recommended intake of adults (75 and 90 mg for females and males, respectively) (Grosso et al., 2013; US Department of Agriculture., 2018). a platform for investigating the contributions of E. gracilis and its relatives to the biosphere. Eng. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2018.05.021, Lee, R.A., and Lavoie, J.-M. (2013). doi: 10.1016/0005-2744(69)90253-8, Barsanti, L., Bastianini, A., Passarelli, V., Tredici, M.R., and Gualtieri, P. (2000). Here we present an overview of valuable bioproducts (e.g., dietary protein, provitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, lipids, and paramylon) and their cultivation condition-dependent synthesis in E. gracilis with special consideration to their industrial relevance and future development (Figure 1). J. Appl. Fish Shellfish Immunol. Consequently, it may be a viable commercial strategy to use E. gracilis to produce these high-value products with biofuel commodities as a co-product (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2018). USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. Eur. Immunomodulation and anti-cancer activity of polysaccharide-protein complexes. Outdoor PT cultivation is considered the most economical option for the bulk production of microalgal biomass (Apel and Weuster-Botz, 2015). 6, 8493. 245, 274282. Biomol. There is an emerging market for E. gracilis-derived products, which is reflected in the recent founding of new companies specialised in the cultivation and commercialisation of E. gracilis. 56, 251258. doi: 10.2216/09-112.1, Mller, C., Ortmann, T., Abi, A., Hartig, D., Scholl, S., and Jrdening, H.-J. We address this by genome, RNA and protein sequencing: the E. gracilis genome is >2Gb, with 36,526 predicted proteins. Nat. Algal Res. Rep. 6, 18. Phycol. reported a nuclear transformation platform facilitating further molecular genetic studies and the metabolic modification of E. gracilis (Khatiwada et al., 2019). Mol. Photoactivated adenylyl cyclase controls phototaxis in the flagellate Euglena gracilis. To maximise the bioactive potential of paramylon, the granules could be hydrolysed to soluble shorter-chain -1,3-glucans, which may lead to an increased blood plasma availability and a stronger or different immune response compared to an insoluble preparation (Rice et al., 2005). (a) Culturing Euglena gracilis Klebs as batch cultures under 210 mol m-2 s-1; (b) Euglena gracilis Klebs growing under 210 mol m-2 s-1 at the exponential phase (Images by C.K. Two examples are high-throughput optofluidic image cytometry, where lipid-overproducing mutants can be identified without the need for staining of the cells with potentially phenotype-altering dyes, and fluorescence imaging flow cytometry, which allows the normalisation of fluorescence values against the cell size to avoid false-negative results (i.e., mislabelling of small cells with relatively high fluorescence values) (Lei et al., 2016; Muoz et al., 2018). 16, 112. Euglena is a rare organism that combines both plant and animal cell characteristics to efficiently absorb nutrients. 70, 27202726. Thermoplasticization of euglenoid -1,3-glucans by mixed esterification. Variability of wax ester fermentation in natural and bleached Euglena gracilis strains in response to oxygen and the elongase inhibitor flufenacet. (1969). 2016, Gissibl et al. Nickel accumulation by the green algae-like Euglena gracilis. Its most studied wild-type strains are Z and bacillaris, but their discrimination by standard molecular methods is difficult.Therefore, we decided to test the suitability of MALDI-TOF MS (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry . 79, 371378. 97, 34943500. Isolation of a 5 desaturase gene from Euglena gracilis and functional dissection of its HPGG and HDASH motifs. doi: 10.1039/C3MT00313B, Garca-Garca, J.D., Pea-Sanabria, K.A., Snchez-Thomas, R., and Moreno-Snchez, R. (2018). Br. Res. Bioeng. The performance of paramylon in this study was as effective as or more effective than two commercially available -glucan products for animal feed that were derived from yeast (Levine et al., 2013). J. Neurol. doi: 10.1007/s11745-015-4010-3, Nandy, S.K., and Srivastava, R.K. (2018). (2018). Nat. Shigeoka, S., Nakano, Y., and Kitaoka, S. (1980). (2009). Hydrolytic endo--1,3-glucanases: random cleavage of the polysaccharide chain (Takeda et al., 2015). (2010). doi: 10.3390/antiox6040099, Fujita, T., Aoyagi, H., Ogbonna, J.C., and Tanaka, H. (2008). Photosynthetic euglenids are major components of aquatic ecosystems and relatives of trypanosomes. Aquacult. Use of ionic liquids in biodiesel production: a review. Presently, only nutritious whole cell meal, the nutraceutical paramylon and cosmetics are commercially viable, while biofuel production from E. gracilis cell mass is in contrast not yet feasible. *Correspondence: Anwar Sunna, anwar.sunna@mq.edu.au, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Cancer Lett. Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi 51, 483488. Nutr. Carbohydrate Polymers 200, 239247. Metallomics 6, 604616. Bioproducts from E. gracilis can be produced under various cultivation conditions discussed in this review, and their yields are relatively high when compared with those achieved in microalgal systems. Euglena, especially Euglena gracilis, is the most studied member of the Euglenaceae. A key enzyme in its -tocopherol synthesis pathway (Figure 2C) is -tocopherol methyltransferase (Shigeoka et al., 1986, 1992). Carbohydrate Polymers 196, 339347. Adv. (2017). doi: 10.1023/a:1008022305865, Kusmic, C., Barsanti, L., Di Lascio, N., Faita, F., Evangelista, V., and Gualtieri, P. (2018). doi: 10.1016/S0016-2361(00)00142-3, Maxwell, J.R., Douglas, A.G., Eglinton, G., and McCormick, A. High-throughput label-free image cytometry and image-based classification of live Euglena gracilis. Biochem. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2017.11.013, Niki, E., and Traber, M.G. doi: 10.2965/jwet.2015.195, Tossavainen, M., Katyal Chopra, N., Kostia, S., Valkonen, K., Sharma, A.K., Sharma, S., et al. (2018). Plant Physiol. Heterologous expression of photoactivated adenylyl cyclase (PAC) genes from the flagellate Euglena gracilis in insect cells. Impact of -1,3-glucan isolated from Euglena gracilis on corneal epithelial cell migration and on wound healing in a rat alkali burn model. The enzymatic conversion of major algal and cyanobacterial carbohydrates to bioethanol. Enhancement of photosynthetic capacity in Euglena gracilis by expression of cyanobacterial fructose-1,6-/sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase leads to increases in biomass and wax ester production. Biochemistry 2, 11481154. Therapeut. Vitamin C (ascorbate) is critical for human health as it acts as an antioxidant and co-factor for several enzymes involved in essential biosynthesis pathways (Grosso et al., 2013; Aghajanian et al., 2015). Pharmacol. Euglena gracilis is a good source of vitamins A, C, and E and amino acids, which are essential for the human diet. Military Med. (2018). 37, 3846. Bull. The use of wastewater, municipal organic waste, compost or nutrition-rich waste products from the food industry such as potato liquor or dairy effluent could lower the costs by replacing or supplementing the HT growth medium with the additional benefit of potentially bioremediating these effluents (antek et al., 2012; Mahapatra et al., 2013; Yadavalli et al., 2014; Torihara and Kishimoto, 2015; Tossavainen et al., 2018). Nuclear transformation of the versatile microalga Euglena gracilis. Biol. Microbiol. Arashida, R., and Mitra, S. (2015). 25, 855865. doi: 10.1016/j.jsb.2010.07.008, Jiang, Q., Christen, S., Shigenaga, M.K., and Ames, B.N. Effects of growth conditions. Biotechnol. Production of paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, by heterotrophic growth of Euglena gracilis on potato liquor in fed-batch and repeated-batch mode of cultivation. Chemical modification potentiates paramylon induction of antimicrobial activity. Furthermore, there is a preference for the use of short- or medium-chain esters over long-chain esters in the industrial production of diesel and kerosene because shorter esters provide better cold flow properties and oxidative stability (Maurice et al., 2001). Vogel, K., and Barber, A.A. (1968). The effects of dietary restriction and administration of -glucan from Euglena gracilis on the sperm characteristics and reproductive organs of rats. Euglena gracilis is a common primary producer in aquatic ecosystems where it produces a large biomass with beneficial metabolites that have a high commercial value. 28, 423436. (2003). U.S. Patent No 9,045,784. (2011). Biochem. WEs can be used directly as biodiesel, whereas FAs must be processed first by esterification with an alcohol to yield WEs. doi: 10.3945/jn.111.148080, Disch, A., Schwender, J., Mller, C., Lichtenthaler, H.K., and Rohmer, M. (1998). doi: 10.1104/pp.103.034223, Ntefidou, M., Ldtke, T., Ahmad, M., and Hder, D.-P. (2006). Putative enzymatic mechanism for synergistic paramylon degradation in Euglena gracilis (C). (2001). Biofuels 7, 713721. J. Biol. Sakagami, H., Unten, S., Hanaoka, A., Ohsawa, N., Fujimaki, M., Komatsu, N., et al. 10, 165170. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2016.07.012. PLoS ONE 13, 114. Res. (2011). Biotechnol. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/74.6.714, Johansen, K.S. (2013). -1,3 glucan derived from Euglena gracilis and Algamune enhances innate immune responses of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus L.). Adaptive laboratory evolution - principles and applications for biotechnology. For example, the 8-desaturase from the E. gracilis pathway (see Figure 2D) has been incorporated into A. thaliana along with enzymes from other organisms for the production of EPA. (2017). (1964). Foods 6, 121. Biotechnol. Euglena in time: evolution, control of central metabolic processes and multi-domain proteins in carbohydrate and natural product biochemistry. Science 291, 15231527. 28, 15871592. Biotechnol. as a suitable source of lipids for potential use as biofuel and sustainable wastewater treatment. Life Sci. Therefore, protein sourced from E. gracilis could provide an alternative to supplement a vegetarian diet (US Department of Agriculture., 2018). 35, 5558. Initial transcriptomic studies indicated that amino acid synthesis pathways in E. gracilis were similar to those used by plants and bacteria (O'Neill et al., 2015b). doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0290(19970120)53:2<185::AID-BIT8>3.0.CO;2-K, Tanaka, Y., Ogawa, T., Maruta, T., Yoshida, Y., Arakawa, K., and Ishikawa, T. (2017). Hepatogastroenterology 56, 547550. J. (2001). There is a growing interest in the commercial exploitation of E. gracilis based on the organism's versatility, resilience and capability to synthesise a broad and unique range of bioproducts (Suzuki, 2017). doi: 10.1016/j.bej.2013.03.006, Choi, J.A., Oh, T.-H., Choi, J.-S., Chang, D.-J., and Joo, C.-K. (2013). Gene knockdown via RNA interference (RNAi) has led to the identification of the role of photoactivated adenylyl cyclase in phototaxis and the finding that glucan synthase-like 2 is essential for paramylon synthesis (Ntefidou et al., 2003; Tanaka et al., 2017). In vivo 3, 243247. Chem. In a heterogeneous environment, the cells move into the red circle. Light dependency of resistance to ionizing radiation in Euglena gracilis. For example, HT growth in a medium supplemented with external nitrogen (ammonium) has resulted in the production of cell mass with a protein content of close to 0.7 g/g DW, whereas PT cultivation maximally yields 0.5 g/g DW (Chae et al., 2006; Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010). (2017). 48, 17701775. Reports on industrial-scale HT cultivation of E. gracilis in controlled bioreactors have been only conceptual so far. Microbiol. Studies undertaken with porcine leucocytes, chickens (broilers) and fishes (e.g., rainbow trout, Nile tilapia, and red drum) have shown that supplementation of the medium with paramylon or inclusion of paramylon in a diet resulted in immunostimulatory and/or -regulatory activity on the cells or animals, with positive effects such as host protection against parasites (Sonck et al., 2010; Skov et al., 2012; Levine et al., 2018; Yamamoto et al., 2018a,b). 591, 13601370. 91, 3146. Oral delivery and gastrointestinal absorption of soluble glucans stimulate increased resistance to infectious challenge. 53, 185190. Miyatake, K., and Kitaoka, S. (1983). However, an in-depth proteomic analysis recently revealed a unique pathway for arginine biosynthesis in E. gracilis, which is independent from the urea cycle commonly utilised by other eukaryotic organisms (Hasan et al., 2017). J. Funct. Biophys. Front. (2012). Barras, D.R., and Stone, B.A. In a heterogeneous environment, the cells move into the red circle. Euglena gracilis growth and cell composition under different temperature, light and trophic conditions. doi: 10.1271/bbb.60327, Ishikawa, T., and Shigeoka, S. (2008). doi: 10.1101/228015, Fang, H., Kang, J., and Zhang, D. (2017). Comparative studies between laminaribiose- and -1,3-oligoglucan phosphorylase. This work was supported by the Australian Research Council Industrial Transformation Training Centre funding scheme (Project Number: IC130100009). Various industrial applications have been proposed for paramylon, including its use as a substrate for thermoplasticisation. Bioresource Technol. Crit. The flagellum they use for locomotion, which is slightly shorter than its body, beats by spinning at 40 Hz in close proximity to the cell body ().As for most flagellates, the swimming motion of E. gracilis is rototraslatory and inherently 3D. -1,3-glucan hydrolases from Euglena gracilis: II. 191, 342353. Bioeng. Biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in Euglena gracilis: biochemical and molecular evidence for the involvement of a 4-fatty acyl group desaturase. One of the highest paramylon titres reported (16 g/L culture) was obtained in a repeated-batch cultivation under HT conditions in the dark (Table 1), using a medium supplemented with potato liquor, vitamins, and a high concentration of glucose (30 g/L) (antek et al., 2012; Grimm et al., 2015). Fish Shellfish Immunol. doi: 10.1002/apj.1805, Yamada, K., Suzuki, H., Takeuchi, T., Kazama, Y., Mitra, S., Abe, T., et al. 215, 7279. Nutr. Eye Res. (2001). 21, 926936. Nutr. Vet. J. Biochem. Biochim. Euglena gracilis ascorbate peroxidase forms an intramolecular dimeric structure: its unique molecular characterization. of P. gracilis that may compromise the survival of this species but at higher concentrations than recorded in the environment, so P. gracilis can be considered tolerant to this herbicide at environmentally relevant concentrations. Chem. In E. gracilis, WE synthesis serves as an electron sink for ATP production through glycolysis during anaerobiosis. Growth and chemical composition of Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis biomass at different temperatures. The mode of cultivation has a major impact on the total protein content of E. gracilis (Table 1), especially when comparing photoautotrophic (PT), heterotrophic (HT), and mixotrophic (MT) growth conditions. Until now, the research on the health benefits of paramylon has focussed mainly on applications to treat human conditions, but it has been suggested that it also could be beneficial to livestock and fish health. doi: 10.1016/0005-2744(67)90227-6, Matos, .P. Res. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Bumbak, F., Cook, S., Zachleder, V., Hauser, S., and Kovar, K. (2011). (2018). 7, 261275. Microalgae have been proposed as a source of feedstock for the production of biofuels such as biodiesel because of the high amounts of lipids, mostly FAs and WE, accumulated during the growth of some microalgal species (Matos, 2017). Yet, the influence of light was shown to be independent of the presence of chlorophyll, suggesting that mitochondria may be primarily responsible for the regulation of -tocopherol synthesis (Kusmic et al., 1998; Ogbonna et al., 1998; Fujita et al., 2008; Hasan et al., 2017). (2017). doi: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2011.07.018, Mahapatra, D.M., Chanakya, H.N., and Ramachandra, T.V. 142, 587S591S. Suzuki, K. (2017). Original data collection and draft preparation by AG. In the present study, we isolated the cDNA encoding MMAA from Euglena gracilis Z, a photosynthetic flagellate. Biomass production in mixotrophic culture of Euglena gracilis under acidic condition and its growth energetics. Recent advances in ascorbate biosynthesis and the physiological significance of ascorbate peroxidase in photosynthesizing organisms. doi: 10.1007/s10811-013-9979-5, Malkoff, D.B., and Buetow, D.E. Kataoka, H., Shimura, T., Mizoshita, T., Kubota, E., Mori, Y., Mizushima, T., et al. (2013). Sci. Cell Factories 16, 113. Regardless of the cultivation mode, dried E. gracilis cell mass would be competitive in terms of its protein content with fresh high-protein animal products such as beef, chicken or fish, of which the protein content usually does not exceed 0.4 g/g after cooking (Table 1). 21, 114. Biosci. Exp. Lipids 47, 913926. Ferment. -tocopherol, the major form of vitamin E in the US diet, deserves more attention. A review on sustainable yeast biotechnological processes and applications. Another example is the production of self-assembling -1,3-glucan nanofibres derived from paramylon (Shibakami et al., 2013a). In a laboratory set-up mimicking local environmental conditions, experiments with a raceway for the PT cultivation of E. gracilis resulted in biomass yields close to calculated theoretical values. Acta (BBA) Lipids Lipid Metab. Another indicator that paramylon has regulatory effects on the cells was a study on a collagen-induced arthritis mouse model (for rheumatoid arthritis), where 2% (w/w) paramylon in the diet relieved arthritis symptoms and decreased cytokine (IFN-, IL-6, and IL-17) levels, so the authors concluded a possible involvement of Th type 17 cells (Suzuki et al., 2018). 2011; Sanghvi and Martin 2010 ). The journal Frontiers in Nutrition published a paper on the results of our joint research with Waseda University, which reported that the body clock in Bioresource Technol. Compared to some -tocopherol methyltransferases from plants, the E. gracilis enzyme has a high KM value (50 M for SAM) and low specific activity (251 nmol/h per mg protein for -tocopherol) (Shigeoka et al., 1992; Koch et al., 2003). doi: 10.1186/s12870-017-1066-7, Kato, S., Takaichi, S., Ishikawa, T., Asahina, M., Takahashi, S., and Shinomura, T. (2016). Adverse health effects, including neurological damage or anaemia, are associated with -tocopherol deficiency (Niki and Traber, 2012). The single cells are biflagellate, with the flagella originating in a small reservoir at the anterior of the cell. Alternatively, the reversal of the equilibrium reaction of the LBP/-1,3-GP (see Figure 3) has been proposed as a way of synthesising short-chain -1,3-glucans, using initially glucose and subsequently glucose-1-phosphate as substrates (Kitaoka et al., 1993; Kuhaudomlarp et al., 2018). Evaluation of growth characteristics of Euglena gracilis for microalgal biomass production using wastewater. The direct contribution to prey capture represents a novel function . Future protein supply and demand: strategies and factors influencing a sustainable equilibrium. Wax ester and lipophilic compound profiling of Euglena gracilis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: toward understanding of wax ester fermentation under hypoxia. Aims. In an alternative approach, genes encoding single enzymes of the E. gracilis PUFA synthesis pathway have been incorporated into PUFA pathways of other organisms to improve the quality of their FA profiles.
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